Research Paper By Antonio Novais
(Wellness Coach, PORTUGAL)
The Birth
The birthplace of Appreciative Inquiry (AI) happened in the doctoral program in Organizational Behavior at Case Western Reserve University in the collaboration between David Cooperrider and Suresh Srivastva in 1980.
As a doctoral student David Cooperrider is asked to do an organizational analysis of the Cleveland Clinic looking for answers regarding “what’s wrong with the human side of the organization?” In gathering his data, he becomes overwhelmed by the level of positive cooperation, innovation and egalitarian governance he sees in the organization. Suresh Srivastva, Cooperrider’s advisor notices David’s excitement and suggests going further by making it the focus. Following this suggestion, David gets permission from the chairman of the clinic, William Kiser, to focus attention on the analysis of the factors that contributed to the highly efficient operation of the organization. The term “Appreciative Inquiry” was first written about in an analytic footnote, in the feedback report of “emergent themes”, by David Cooperrider and Suresh Srivastva for the Board of Governors of the Cleveland Clinic. The report created such a powerful and positive stir that the Board called for ways to use this method with the whole group practice. The momentum set the stage for David Cooperrider’s seminal dissertation – Appreciative Inquiry: Toward a Methodology for Utilizing and Enhancing Organizational Innovation (1986).
What Is Appreciative Inquiry?
As part of his intervention in the clinic, Cooperrider found that “when human systems focus their narratives on what gives life, and what has value to its elements, they are creating synergies, capable of generating common meanings, that allow the co-construction of new realities with positive implications on the entire organizational system, concerning its standards, beliefs and culture” (Cooperrider, Srivastva & Barrett, 1995; cit. Whitney & Trosten-Bloom, 2003). From the deepening of this research several definitions of AI have emerged. We have selected three:
Taking a practical approach to the topic, which is the one that interests us in the coaching context, Cooperrider & Whitney say that “Appreciative Inquiry is about the co-evolutionary search for the best in people, their organizations, and the relevant world around them. In its broadest focus, it involves systematic discovery of what gives “life” to a living system when it is most alive, most effective, and most constructively capable in economic, ecological, and human terms. AI involves, in a central way, the art and practice of asking questions that strengthen a system’s capacity to apprehend, anticipate, and heighten positive potential. It centrally involves the mobilization of inquiry through the crafting of the “unconditional positive question” often involving hundreds or sometimes thousands of people. In AI the arduous task of intervention gives way to the speed of imagination and innovation; instead of negation, criticism, and spiraling diagnosis, there is discovery, dream, and design. AI seeks, fundamentally, to build a constructive union between a whole people and the massive entirety of what people talk about as past and present capacities: achievements, assets, unexplored potentials, innovations, strengths, elevated thoughts, opportunities, benchmarks, high point moments, lived values, traditions, strategic competencies, stories, expressions of wisdom, insights into the deeper corporate spirit or soul– and visions of valued and possible futures. Taking all of these together as a gestalt, AI deliberately, in everything it does, seeks to work from accounts of this “positive change core”—and it assumes that every living system has many untapped and rich and inspiring accounts of the positive. Link the energy of this core directly to any change agenda and changes never thought possible are suddenly and democratically mobilized.”
Marujo, Neto, Caetano & Rivero (2007)[4] define Appreciative Inquiry as the “approach and study of what works in the organization, on what gives meaning and life to that system and what can flourish, all these created and developed from three schools of thought: (1) Social Constructionism (Berger & Luckman) that holds that reality is created, maintained and transformed through human communication; (2) Theory of Images of the Future (Elise & Kenneth Boulding) suggesting that the images we have of the future influence our decisions and actions of the present; and (3) Grounded Theory (Barney Glaser, Anselm Strauss) that posits that understanding a culture, organization or society through the eyes of its stakeholders, and that participant observation is the best way to collect data and describe a culture.“
For Moore & Tschannen-Moran (2009)[5] “Appreciative inquiry is a philosophy, as well as an approach for motivating change that focuses on exploring and amplifying strengths.”
Appreciative Inquiry Principles
The theoretical framework that inspired and propelled the practice of AI, resides on five core principles that Cooperrider & Whitney (2005) say characterize the “Positive Revolution”, related to the beliefs and values on human systems and change.
Positive Principle
Positive actions and outcomes stem from positive energy and emotion.
The Positive Principle asserts that positive energy and positive affect – aspects such as hope, enthusiasm, inspiration, caring, camaraderie, sense of purpose and the joy that comes from creating something meaningful – disrupt downward spirals, building the aspirations of people into a dynamic force for transformational change. Positive energy and emotion broaden thinking, expand awareness, increase abilities, build resiliency, offset negatives, generate new possibilities, and create an upward spiral of learning and growth.
How do we get that result?
By identifying, appreciating, amplifying strengths, and supporting the client to go beyond problem solving, using positive questions (“What positive learning have you taken from previous weight loss programs?” instead of “What went wrong with previous weight loss programs?”). Asking a positive question drives a positive change (in the exemplified case, the mood) and has a lasting effect.
When we establish a partnership with the client, moving in a positive way toward a goal, when we rely on a positive attitude and we move toward the desired objective, change will occur.
Constructionist Principle
Positive energy and emotion stem from positive conversations and interactions.
The constructionist approach to human science and practice replaces the individual (as the locus of knowledge) by the relationships, to create a sense of reality built around the power of language and discourse of different types (from words to metaphors, to narrative forms, etc.). The Constructionist Principle asserts that positive energy and emotion are generated through positive conversations and interactions with people, leading to positive actions and outcomes.
How do we get that result?
Through our conversations and interactions with other people, we don’t just interpret and understand the world of experience; we also create the reality in which we live. “Words create worlds”.
“More than any of the other five principles, the Constructionist Principle makes clear the importance of the social context and environment in creating the present moment and changing future moments. Inner work and self-talk alone are not sufficient. Different environments generate different truths and different possibilities. They even generate different dimensions of individual experience. As Rosamund and Benjamin Zander (2000) summarize the Constructionist Principle: “It’s all invented! So we might as well invent a story or framework of meaning that enhances our quality of life and the lives of those around us.” We invent those stories and frameworks together, in conversation with others.”
Simultaneity Principle
Positive conversations and interactions stem from positive questions and reflections.
Inquiry and change do not take part in separate moments, it’s simultaneous. Conversations and interactions become positive the instant we ask a positive question, tell a positive story, or share a positive reflection. Positive questions and reflections are themselves the change we seek. They are not just a prelude to change; they are change. They don’t just begin a process that leads to a positive future. Rather, they simultaneously create a positive present.
How do we get that result?
By changing our conversations and interactions in a positive direction, allowing us to create a positive present (I prefer to ask my client “How good are you feeling today?” instead of “How are you today?”)
The initial questions are essential in channelling energy to build a better future and to create worlds in which we live and work. They create the foundation for what we found and the findings form the foundation to dream and design destinations.
There are no neutral questions. As stated by Jacqueline Bascobert Kelm (2005), cited by Moore & Tschannen-Moran (2009), “Every inquiry takes us somewhere, even if it is back to what we originally believed. Inhabiting this spirit of wonder can transform our lives, and the unconditional positive question is one of the greatest tools we have to this end”
Anticipatory Principle
Positive questions and reflections stem from positive anticipation of the future.
The human systems are inspired and guided by their images of the future. When we anticipate a positive future, everything moves in that direction. It is a force that energizes the present. The more concrete and real the image, the greater the attraction and the movement that creates. Bennis & Nanus (1985), cited by Moore & Tschannen-Moran (2009), say that “Vision is a target that beckons” and Margaret Wheatley, also cited by the latters say that it is “a power, not a place, an influence, not a destination” and that It is best served by imbuing the present with “visionary messages matched by visionary behaviors.”
How do we get that result?
By imaging how things look like at their very best, we become more creative, resourceful, and resilient, finding ways to make things happen. Our questions and reflections flow from the outlook we hold. In the absence of hope, it’s hard to seek out what we want, much less celebrate what we get.
Poetic Principle
Positive anticipation of the future stems from positive attention in the present.
The more we attend to the positive dimensions of the present moment, the more positive will be our intentions for future moments. When we focus on problems, we get more problems. When we focus on possibilities, we get more possibilities. The themes we choose to study/research determine and create the world we discover.
How do we get that result?
By looking to the present (as well as the past and future) as an endless source of possibilities, inspiration and learning. Telling a story and understanding it as a source of holistic information, including facts, feelings and emotions that the person experiences, and recognizing that these stories, like poetry, can be told and interpreted in countless ways, on any aspect of human existence. Precisely what happens, for example, with the endless interpretive possibilities that we can find in a good poem.
Stated another way, the Poetic Principle suggests that the history of an individual can be rewritten at any time, and an endless number of realities can flow from the reinterpretation of the history of each person. Not all clients will come with positive stories of life, but this principle reminds us that a story can be reframed, re-imagined and re-focused to allow greater hope and fun in action towards change.
Forming the base of a pyramid, upon which all the other principles are built (see below), the Poetic Principle connects hope with mindfulness, and intention with attention. Becoming mindful of what adds richness, texture, depth, beauty, significance, and energy to life awakens us to life’s magnificent potential. It’s as though life becomes a work of great poetry, filled with hopeful meaning and forward movement toward positive growth and change (Moore, M.; Tschannen-Moran, B., 2009.
Figure 1 AI Principles (Moore & Tschannen-Moran , 2009)
AI brings a vision focused in the future, as opposed to focusing in the past. It searches for the best of what exists, of what works well, to dream and visualize what could be (Rivero, 2008).
The 5-D Cycle of Appreciative Inquiry
In 1990, Srivastva, Cooperrider and Fry, worked with the Romanian healthcare system and developed a method to implement the 5 principles – The 4-D Cycle. In the words of Cooperider & Whitney, a cycle that can be quick and informal as a conversation with a friend or colleague, or formal, such as a comprehensive analysis of an organization involving shareholders, customers, suppliers, partners and others.
Since its conception the Cycle was developed in different ways. We will use the Watkins & Mohr (2001) 5-D Cycle approach, as described by Moore & Tschannen-Moran (2009):
1. Define
The process begins by both coach and client making an agreement regarding to what he/she wants to learn (topic choice) and regarding how to learn (method choice). The effectiveness of the AI process, as well as the coaching process, depends on whether the agreement is clear and appropriate.
It is important to be aware of the possibility of the coachee not being ready, willing and able to implement an approach to change based on strengths. For this reason, we must notice how much the client wants to talk about their problems and ailments and simultaneously express empathy to move the conversation forward (i.e., using non-violent communication). In case there’s no moving forward, and after we grant a reasonable time, we should encourage the client to make a change to another coach or resource so he/she can be better served (ICF Code of Ethics Section 3, number 20).
2. Discover
Once the agreement about the topic is made, the next step is to support the coachee to discover past and present examples of the desired results. AI assumes that we all have things in our lives that work well, although sometimes they can be hidden and need to be unearthed. We can always find real-life examples, images and stories that support the established agreement. Through a dynamic positive discovery of its potential and value, the client share with us the best moments, what they appreciate, what they value most, and what resources they find.
To facilitate the process of discovery, it was developed the Appreciative Interview Protocol that can be used any time during the coaching process. It is particularly effective when the coachee is blocked or unmotivated. The Protocol includes four discoveries:
Best Experience
“Tell me about your best experience with exercise, a time when you felt most powerful and engaged. What made it so exciting? Who was there? Describe that experience in detail.”
Core Values
“Tell me about the things you value most deeply, things about yourself, your relationships, and your work.”
Generative Conditions
“What are the key ingredients that allow you to be at your best?”
Three Wishes
“If you found a magic lamp and a genie were to grant you three wishes, what would they be?”
The purpose of these discoveries is to energize and strengthen the client’s self-efficacy, through the recognition of mastery experiences lived by them. The more direct, personal and relevant the mastery experiences, the greater their impact on the coachee’s motivation to change.
The Discover phase is probably the most important because of increasing self-confidence, and lays the foundation for what follows. This is why it is important to move calmly in Discover in order to get to get to goal setting.
The Simultaneity Principle makes clear that asking appreciative questions is not a prelude to the work of coaching; it is the work of coaching. Inquiry into what happens when we function at our best is transformational in and of itself. It not only forms the basis for change, it is the change we seek. (Moore & Tschannen-Moran, 2009)
3. Dream
Once the coachee has discovered the best of “what is”, it’s time we help him/her visualize the best of “what might be”. So, based on the stories, we provide support for the client’s use of discoveries in a constructive way to create a dream, as the coachee expands his/her potential. Moving from the level of three wishes to the level of realistic, yet provocative, propositions about the future, the dream will become even greater than we would have imagined if the coachee didn’t go through the phase of Discover.
At this phase, AI makes use of both the left and right brain activities. The Poetic Principle leads us beyond the limitations of the analysis using stories, narratives, metaphors and images to make dreams come alive.
Some aspects still have impact on the construction of the dream process. The first is the issue of the calling: what is life calling the coachee to be (vocation)? The second is the issue of energy: what possibilities generate enthusiasm for the client? The third is the issue of support: what positive central element that supports our client?
When the dream becomes a target that beckons, and an anticipatory field that surrounds and supports a client’s “best self”, it is time to move on to Design. (Moore & Tschannen-Moran, 2009)
4. Design
The design phase enables the dream to become reality by working to align the structures with the dream. The coachee is asked to make proposals and formulate goals as how the dream materializes in terms of habits, procedures, systems, technology, resources, relationships, finances. What would change if the structures were aligned with the client’s dream? It is the description of these changes that is the main job at the Design phase.
It is critical to make this phase as personal and detailed as possible. It is extremely important for this phase, and the following one, to encourage the client to make commitments, offers and requests, with a close horizon (one to two weeks). Commitments represent actions the client promises to do as a result of requests from others. Offers represent actions that the coachee volunteers to do. Requests represent actions the customer seeks from others in order to successfully implement the plan.
5. Destiny
This is the action phase. The client begins the process of change towards his/her “best self”. Moments of reflection about the appreciative process are defined, creating a flexible and attentive environment to multiple systems, and actors involved and to unforeseen changes. As a living system, the possibilities continue to evolve beyond the moment of planning, as this is more effective because it enables to adapt to a reality in continuous evolution and change.
Figure 2 AI 5-D Cycle (Moore & Tschannen-Moran, 2009)
The purpose of AI is to raise the energy, self-esteem and self-efficacy of clients in order to help them to achieve their destiny. It is not only a process to make to feel good, but also a process for action that fulfils dreams and makes dream to be intrinsic to the way clients are in the world. By developing an “appreciative eye,” clients learn to make the 5-D Cycle their preferred approach to problems and opportunities in order to fulfil their destiny. They learn to continuously innovate their way to ever-higher levels of performance and life satisfaction.
Appreciative Inquiry Applied To Wellness Coaching
Those who know AI applied to an organizational context, certainly detect some differences in relation to the application in a coaching context, yet the essence remains: the coach and the coachee engage in a cooperative search for the strengths and passions of the latter. The coach engages in a dialogue that makes emerge, build and reinforce narratives of what the clients feel that result in their lives (or that resulted) and that are affirmative of their abilities to make decisions. The key to keep the focus on a positive dialogue lies in active listening and positive questions. The expected result is a development in trust that is reflected in information sharing and openness to new possibilities.
The following are sample questions from Moore & Charvat (2006) that can be used in a dialogue with a client, about changing health & wellness behaviors. The questions are arranged according to the 5D-Cycle. The starting point is the discover phase, since the topic is health & wellness.
Discover
The Discover phase consists of the coach discussing the core life-giving forces of healthy living for the client. The questions asked in this phase are formulated to determine what aspects of their health clients most value and want to carry into the future.
Possible questions for coach-coachee interaction:
Describe a time when you had an exceptionally healthy lifestyle.
- What did you appreciate about the experience?
- What was it about you that made this happen?
- What was it about others that made this happen?
- What other situational factors supported this positive experience?
Take a moment to think about what health means to you.
- Tell me what health means to you.
- Tell me a story of when you felt particularly healthy and alive. Why was it powerful?
- What are the good things about you that helped make this a special time?
- Did you learn anything new about yourself?
- Who else was involved and how did they help?
- Was there anything else that helped make this time special?
From time to time, we all need help. Can you tell me an experience when you felt cared for? It might have been through an interaction with a doctor, nurse, or aide; in a hospital, in a home, or in a place having nothing to do with health or care. What made it so special?
- How did others help?
- Was there anything else that helped make a difference?
Dream
The dream phase is a process of challenging the status quo by envisioning more valued and vital futures. Questions are designed to invite the client to think “great” thoughts and create great possibilities for the future – What might be?
Possible questions are as follows:
Imagine a world where everyone could be in charge of his or her own health and care. What are the most important things you would need to take care of your own health and care?
Your health and the health of your family are affected by what happens in your community. Imagine that you live in a truly healthy community. What would be different from the way things are now?
- What role do you see for yourself?
- What steps could your community take to ensure a healthy future?
If I were to give you 3 wishes that could be used to improve your exercise, what would those 3 wishes be?
- What things would need to be in place for those wishes to come true?
- What would you do?
- What would others in your life need to do?
- What would I need to do?
Imagine that you are so physically active that you feel very fit and healthy. What would you feel like on a daily basis? What would you be doing? How do you think you would look? How do you think it would help your heart? Health overall? What would you see yourself doing for exercise that would make you feel good while doing it?
- What could you do that would be different from the way things are now?
- What steps would those around you need to do to help you?
- What steps would I need to do to help you?
The outcome of this phase is a compelling statement about who the client is and what behavior does he/she want to do consistently – a Vision.
Design
The design phase is a collaborative construction of positive images of the person’s future. It is the creation of the new social architecture by the generation of provocative propositions. What should be?
Possible questions are as follows:
- What could you do now to be more in charge of your own health and care?
- Who would you go to for help? Is there anything the people you go to now for help could do differently so you could take more charge of your own health and care?
The outcome of this phase is the creation of an action plan.
Destiny
This is the phase where the client implements the action plan and where questions arise as actions are in progress, usually questions related to sharing, learning and adjustments necessary to approach the desired future. Sometimes these involve a return to the beginning of the cycle.
Length of Time of the AI Dialogue
The length of time of the AI dialogue can vary. Moore & Charvat (2006) found out that in an 8-minute dialogue individuals can provide their stories about their best of what is? (Discover phase). In another 8 minutes, they can describe a positive future they desire (Dream phase). In 30 minutes it is possible to go through all the phases, including developing a set of provocative propositions and designing action steps. The important thing is that some of the distinctive features of AI are present in the conversation. Those features are:
- AI is fully affirmative;
- AI is inquiry based (art of the question), the ability to craft unconditionally positive questions;
- AI is improvisational (an experiment to bring out the best);
- AI helps participants move from deficit-based change to positive change.
Illustration of use of AI to Increase Exercise
Excerpt from Moore & Charbat (2006):
Mrs S is a 55-year-old African American woman who had a myocardial infarction 11 weeks ago. She is married and living with her husband who is retired; no children are living in the house- hold at this time. She has had a good recovery from her myocardial infarction and plans to re- turn to work as a part-time baker in a large grocery store. She has a body mass index of 32, hypertension, and a sedentary lifestyle. It has been recommended that she increase her exercise for her cardiovascular and overall health. Mrs S is meeting with her nurse practitioner in a comfortable conference room in the clinic during a routine follow-up visit. Questions consistent with the AI process are as follows:
Introduction of the AI process with Mrs S
I believe that it is within the power of every individual to have a positive effect on his or her life and health. Today we can learn about your spirit, strengths, and inner knowledge by hearing your stories about health and healthy living. I would like to focus on the positive. I want to focus on the things that are or have gone right with your health and how we can increase them and bring them into the future to help you to stay in good health.
Discover phase
I am going to ask you to share some stories with me about your health experiences. I will keep some brief notes as we go along and I will ask you some clarifying questions. The purpose of this interview is not to discuss any problems, but rather to bring out the positive energy and hopes and dreams of what your health can be and how we can use your past positive experiences and energy to bring those good things into the future.
So, take a few minutes and share a story about a time when you felt really good about your physical activity and moving your body. What did you appreciate about that time? What was it about you that made this exercise happen? Why did your body feel so good? What was it about others that made this happen? What other things supported this positive experience?
Dream phase
Imagine that you are so physically active that you feel very fit and healthy. What would you feel like on a daily basis? What would you be doing? How do you think you would look? How do you think it would help your heart? How would it be helping your overall health? What would you see yourself doing for exercise that would make you feel good while doing it? What could you do that would be different from the way things are now? What steps would those around you need to do to help you? What steps would I need to do to help you?
Design phase
Now, let’s summarize the big points of your story and your dream of an active, healthy lifestyle for yourself. What major things have we learned about you that will make your dream come true? “What could you do right now?”
Mrs S then develops the following provocative propositions: (1) I will exercise daily and have lots of fun with my husband while doing it. (2) I will go up a flight of stairs and not be out of breath. (3) My clothes will not be tight and will look good on my figure.
Deliver phase
That’s a great vision for yourself. It seems to be a reasonable one too. Let’s think together about some first steps to move you closer to that vision. What are some things that you can do in the next week that would move you closer to doing some physically active things that would include your husband and be fun?
Summary
AI is an approach to organizational development with focus on positivity and creativity as strengths conducive to a better future. Its principles and procedures were adapted for use as an intervention model for changing health & wellness behaviors in individuals.
AI promotes opportunities, strengths and hope of people as a way to create healthy lifestyles involving a change of a paradigm based on deficiencies thinking (problem solving) to one based on affirmative thinking (humans as a mystery to be embraced).
Through AI we understand the clients, their values and their life experiences in a way they know and understand themselves. When we build our inquiry around the aspects that support our clients to remind themselves of their abilities and skills, we meet the fundamental criteria of human motivation and positioned ourselves as true coaches.
Bibliography
Moore, M.; Tschannen-Moran, B. (2009) Coaching Psychology Manual, Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins
Moore, Shirley M.; Charvat, Jacqueline (2006) Promoting Health Behavior Change Using Appreciative Inquiry: Moving From Deficit Models to Affirmation Models of Care. Fam Community Health. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins
Orem, Sara; Binkert, Jacqueline; Clancy, Ann (2005) Building Dialogue for Effective Change: Coaching with the Five Principles of Appreciative Inquiry. International Coach Federation Research Symposium
Rivero, Catarina (2008) “Inquérito Apreciativo: Sonhar as Organizações, Co-construir um Futuro Positivo e Inovador”; Inquérito Apreciativo. In http://inqueritoapreciativo.com/IA_Sonhar-as-Organizacoes.pdf. Acessed in 08/11/2012
Watkins, Jane M.; Mohr, Bernard J.; Kelly, R. (2011) Appreciative Inquiry: Change at the Speed of Imagination. Pfeiffer. San Francisco, CA
[1] Watkins, J.; Mohr, B.; Kelly, R. (2011) Appreciative Inquiry: Change at the Speed of Imagination. Pfeiffer. San Francisco, CA
[2] Rivero, Catarina (2008) “Inquérito Apreciativo: Sonhar as Organizações, Co-construir um Futuro Positivo e Inovador”; Inquérito Apreciativo. In http://inqueritoapreciativo.com/IA_Sonhar-as-Organizacoes.pdf. Acessed in 08/11/2012
[3] Cooperider, D.; Whitney, Diana. “A Positive Revolution in Change: Appreciative Inquiry”; Appreciative Inquiry Commons. In http://appreciativeinquiry.case.edu/uploads/whatisai.pdf. Acessed in 08/11/2012
[4] Rivero, Catarina (2008) “Inquérito Apreciativo: Sonhar as Organizações, Co-construir um Futuro Positivo e Inovador”; Inquérito Apreciativo. In http://inqueritoapreciativo.com/IA_Sonhar-as-Organizacoes.pdf. Acessed in 08/11/2012
[5] Moore, M.; Tschannen-Moran, B. (2009) Coaching Psychology Manual, Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins
[6] Moore, M.; Tschannen-Moran, B. (2009) Coaching Psychology Manual, Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins
[7] That is why defining a vision of “future self” is such a good way to support the client.